1	Behaviorism From Lenses on Reading by Tracey and Morrow
2	"This presentation is based on..." This presentation is based on Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models, pages 32-46 by Diane H. Tracey and Lesley Mandel Morrow, 2006, New York: Guildford. This presentation is designed for instructional use only and for use in EDR 621 winter, 2007.
3	Theoretical Perspective Focuses on observable changes in behavior Learning, then, is the outcome of changed behavior
4	Underlying assumptions Behavior is the result of a person’s response to stimuli External stimuli can be manipulated to strengthen or weaken individual behavior
5	Three Major Behavioral Theories Classical Conditioning Theory—developed by Ivan Pavlov Connectionism—developed by Edward Thorndike Operant Conditioning Theory—developed by B.F. Skinner
6	Classical Conditioning Theory Pavlov studied dog salivation Dogs salivated when food was brought out Pavlov theorized that dogs would salivate at mere presence of food dishes—and they did. Then rang bell when food was delivered to see if dogs would associate bell with food—and they did
7	John Watson (1878-1953) Applied Classical Conditioning Theory to humans Is considered father of Behaviorism Theorized that when children come to school nervous abut learning to read and through positive reinforcement become happy learners But when they come to school as curious and engaged learners and are exposed to negative experiences when learning to read, they don’t like to read and so struggle
8	Connectionism Edward L. Thorndike Theorized that stimuli that came after a certain behavior also influenced behavior
9	Four Laws Law of Readiness—learning is easier when it is preceded by easier tasks that progress to more difficult ones Law of Identical Elements—the more learning elements are related to each other (content and procedure), the more transfer there will be from one situation to the next Law of Exercise—the more stimulus-response connections are practiced, the better the learning will be Law of Effect—if an act is followed by a satisfying change in the environment, there is a greater chance that that behavior will be repeated. If the effect is not satisfying then the behavior is less likely to be repeated
10	Operant Conditioning Theory B.F. Skinner—focuses on reinforcement and punishment An assumption—that animals and people could be changed by using similar techniques Not all human learning is automatic and unintentional. People learn to behave in certain ways as they operate in the environment This happened through two different kinds of stimulation—stimulus and response (Pavlov) and operant condition where behavior is exhibited without any observable stimulus, i.e. chickens pecking, babies wiggling arms, etc.
11	Classroom Applications Operant Conditioning Theory lead to “programmed learning” or “programmed instruction” Instruction was broken down into small linear steps Teaching was a matter of producing errorless learning Instruction implemented through behavioral objectives that identifies the targeted behavior change
12	Behavioral Objective “Students will independently rotate through the classroom centers. Success will be achieved when students are able to complete their center rotations for 1 month with three or less teacher assists a day.” Relies on positive reinforcement that becomes less and less as the defined time goes by
13	Shaping Behavior is initially reinforced through positive reinforcement As time goes by only refined elements of that behavior is reinforced Children would be reinforced for looking at a book and telling story in their own words Later they are reinforced only as they progress
14	Chaining “Enables a person to hook together a sequence of small, individual conditioned acts to compose a complex skill (R.M. Thomas, (1996) Comparing theories of child development (4^th ed.) Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.)
15	Affect on Reading Instruction Defined reading as a complex act that consisted of component parts Visual discrimination (abilitgy to discriminated shapes and letters Auditory discrimination (the ability to discriminate the sounds of the alphabet) Left-to-right progression during reading Vocabulary (word knowledge) and comprehension (understanding what you have read)
16	Lead to Subskills Approach Emphasis focused on mastering components of reading
17	Direct Instruction Reading instruction focuses on phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension skills Focuses on discrete skills and subskills felt necessary
18	Foundational Principles of Direct Instruction Teacher is responsible for children’s learning Key to success is finding out what student has not been able to learn Teachers must find ways to respond to children’s individual differences The more carefully skills are taught, the better the child will learn Teach in a way that provides maximum data or feedback on what children have learned
19	Six Steps to Direct Instruction Approach Specifying objectives Devising strategies Developing teaching procedures Selecting examples Sequencing skills Providing practice and review
20	Reading Readiness Based on behaviorism Focuses on skills and subskills Skills taught through direct instruction Included auditory discrimination, cisual discrimination, left-to-right prgression, visual-motor skills, large motor skills like skipping, hopping, and walking on a line Assumes that children are prepared for literacy by acquiring set of prescribed skills Skills are taught directly and systematically
21	Patrick Shannon says Educators committed to behaviorism are “scientific managers” 3 powerful subgroups in filed of reading Reading experts Basal publishers State departments of ed All three, according to Shannon, act in ways that promote behavior practices in in reading that include dividing literacy into discrete skills, focusing on attainment of objectives, relying heavily on testing to monitor progress
22	Shannon writes: “…social, economic, and political circumstances, and the public’s fascination with business, science, and behavioral psychology, have enabled advocagtes of the scientific management position to dominate American reading lessons since the 1920’s through the nearly universal use of commercially prepared basal reading materials” (Patrick Shannon, (1990) The struggle to continue: Progessive reading instruction in the United States, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann